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Youth

Adoration of the Question: Reflections on the Failure to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Juvenile Justice System
Examining circumstances that continue to influence the juvenile justice system and outlining the early system's approach towards youth of color, DMC (Disproportionate Minority Confinement) and its perceived causes. The publications analyzes the well-intentioned federal mandates that have largely failed to reduce entrenched disparities in the system over the 20 years since Congress first mandated that states "address" DMC. The Burns Institute, December 2008.
http://www.burnsinstitute.org/downloads/BI%20Adoration%20of%20the%20Question.pdf

Alternatives to the Secure Detention and Confinement of Juvenile Offenders
Explores efforts underway in many states and counties to provide alternative community-based supervision for juveniles involved in the justice system. Many jurisdictions are struggling with crowding in juvenile detention facilities, yet recent data demonstrate that up to one-third of juveniles populations are potentially low-risk offenders detained for technical parole violations. The report, sponsored by the US Department of Justice's Office of Justice Programs, surveys programs in use from San Fransisco to Baltimore which identify low-risk juveniles and divert them from traditional detention facilities. These alternatives -- including intensive supervision, electronic monitoring, diversion, skills training and residential programs -- often programs prove more cost-effective and result in lower recidivism than incarceration. October 2005.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi...ives_to_Juv_Incarceration-10-05.pdf

America's Invisible Children: Latino Youth and the Failure of Justice
National Council of La Raza (NCLR) and the Campaign for Youth Justice. May 2009. On any given day, close to 18,000 Latino youth are incarcerated in America. The majority of these youth are incarcerated for nonviolent offenses. Most Latino youth are held in juvenile detention facilities (41%) and juvenile long-term secure facilities (34%). However, one out of every four (24%) incarcerated Latino children is held in an adult prison or jail even though youth in adult facilities are in significant danger of suicide and rape. Latino youth are overrepresented in the U.S. justice system and receive harsher treatment than white youth. In order of rising disparities, Latino youth are 4% more likely than white youth to be petitioned, 16% more likely than white youth to be adjudicated delinquent, 28% more likely than white youth to be detained, 41% more likely than white youth to receive an out-of-home placement, 43% more likely than white youth to be waived to the adult system, and 40% more likely to be admitted to adult prison. States with the highest levels of disparity of Latino youth in adult prison (rates over 5 times that for white youth) were California, Minnesota, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Nine out of ten (90%) Latino youth ages 10 to 17 live in states that permit pre-trial detention in adult jails for youth prosecuted in the adult system. According to a study of 40 large urban jurisdictions, Latino youth prosecuted in the adult system are routinely incarcerated in adult jails. Overall, a higher proportion of white youth are released pretrial (60%) than any other racial or ethnic categories. Most (54%) of Latino youth prosecuted in the adult system were detained pretrial; of the Latino youth detained pretrial, 72% were held in adult jails. The National Council of La Raza is the largest national Latino civil rights and advocacy organization in the U.S., working to improve opportunities for Hispanic Americans.
http://campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/Latino_Brief.pdf

Amici Curiae in support of Graham v. Florida and Sullivan v. Florida.
On Nov. 9, the Supreme Court will hold oral argument in Sullivan vs. Florida and Graham vs. Florida, two cases that will determine whether it is constitutional to sentence a teenager to life in prison without parole for a crime that did not involve the taking of a life. Petitioners in amici curiae include former "juvenile offenders including Former Senator Alan Simpson, Charles Dutton, R.Dwayne Betts, Ishmael Beah and others.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/sullivan_amici_curiae.pdf

California Department of Corrections' New 'Plan' for Juvenile Justice
The plan, however, was criticized by some juvenile justice advocacy groups and a top legislative critic of the state's youth prison system who contend the proposed reforms don't go far enough. "What we need is a detailed vision for moving this department philosophically toward education and rehabilitation," said state Sen. Gloria Romero, D-Los Angeles, "not just incarceration of youth." The reforms would be implemented through at least the next five years, depending on funding, and state officials contend they will lower recidivism rates, provide safer facilities and better prepare youths to integrate into society. Lenore Anderson, director of the activist group Books Not Bars in Oakland, had hoped the department would close some facilities. The 2-year-old organization founded by San Francisco's Ella Baker Center for Human Rights has long been critical of the youth authority. "Any plan that keeps abusive youth prisons run by prison guards open is a set-up for failure," Anderson said. "The solutions have been obvious for a long time, and we're disappointed that it doesn't call for closing any facilities." Under the reforms, none of the current facilities are slated to be closed.
http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/merc...s/special_packages/cya/13300039.htm

Catholic Bishops of the South: "Suffer the Little Children..." Juvenile Justice in the South
Part of a series of pastoral statements by Catholic Bishops of the South on the Criminal Justice process.
http://www.catholiclabor.org/church-doc/CBS-3.htm

The Consequences Aren't Minor: The Impact of Trying Youth as Adults and Strategies for Reform
Presents research, statuary analysis, and case studies to highlight the problems with the policies and practices that treat young people as adults in the justice system. The study examines the laws and data in seven key states: California, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin. An estimated two hundred thousand youth end up in the adult system each year, and 40 states allow or require the jailing of youth in adult facilities before they ever go to trial. About the Campaign for Youth Justice: The Campaign for Youth Justice (C4YJ) is dedicated to ending the practice of trying, sentencing and incarcerating youth under the age of 18 in the adult criminal justice system. Learn more at http://campaign4youthjustice.org.
http://www.campaign4youthjustice.or...NEWS/JPI014Consequences_Summary.pdf

The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School: Jailing and Joblessness of High School Drop Outs and the High Cost to Taxpayers
By Andrew Sum, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University. October 2009. "The report puts the collective cost to the nation over the working life of each high school dropout at $292,000. Mr. Sum said that figure took into account lost tax revenues, since dropouts earn less and therefore pay less in taxes than high school graduates. It also includes the costs of providing food stamps and other aid to dropouts and of incarcerating those who turn to crime." "The picture is even bleaker for African-Americans, with nearly one in four young black male dropouts incarcerated or otherwise institutionalized on an average day, the study said. That compares with about one in 14 young, male, white, Asian or Hispanic dropouts." (NY Times)
http://www.clms.neu.edu/publication..._of_Dropping_Out_of_High_School.pdf

Cost-Effective Youth Corrections: Rationalizing the fiscal architecture of juvenile justice systems
Summary: In most states, juvenile delinquency is handled at the county-level, with youth being arrested by local police and processed in local courts. If they are adjudicated delinquent and sentenced to options such as drug treatment, mental health counseling, or community service, then the county must pay to provide these services. However, if youth are sentenced to state secure confinement, they are sometimes sent to there at little cost to the county. In Cost-Effective Youth Corrections: Rationalizing the Fiscal Architecture of Juvenile Justice Systems, the Justice Policy Institute profiles several states that have altered the fiscal architecture of their juvenile justice systems to reduce the inefficient, ineffective and sometimes damaging affect of fiscal incentives that make it cheaper to send youth to state secure care. Pennsylvania, California, Wisconsin, Ohio and Illinois have demonstrated that, by rethinking how they fund their juvenile justice systems, states and localities can succeed in keeping more youth at home, reduce the number of youth incarcerated, and promote better outcomes for young people. March 2006.
http://www.justicepolicy.org

The Costs of Confinement: Why Good Juvenile Justice Policies Make Good Fiscal Sense
States spend about $5.7 billion each year imprisoning youth, even though the majority are held for nonviolent offenses. The brief concludes that most youth could be managed safely in the community through alternatives that cost substantially less than incarceration and could lower recidivism by up to 22 percent. These alternatives are also more cost-effective in reducing crime than incarceration, yielding up to $13 in benefits for every dollar spent. Justice Policy Institute: May 2009
http://www.justicepolicy.org/images...05_REP_CostsOfConfinement_JJ_PS.pdf

Crime Rates and Youth Incarceration in Texas and California Compared: Public Safety or Public Waste?
By Mike Males, PhD, Christina Stahlkopf, PhD, and Daniel Macallair, MPA. May 2007. Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice in California. A look at juvenile crime and incarceration in Texas and California. Over the last decade, both states have seen a nearly identical drop in youth crime (as measured by arrest rates). Where California and Texas differ is their incarceration policy the last 10 years: From 1995 to 2006, Texas increased the number of youth that were incarcerated under the age of 18 by 48%. This was done through harsh sentencing practices that targeted non-violent, property and drug offenders. In contrast, during the same period, California drastically reduced the total number of juveniles incarcerated in youth prisons by 75% —an unprecedented decline—by imprisoning only the most violent offender.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi...n-texas-and-california-compared.doc

CRINMAIL 805 - Special Edition on Children in Conflict with the Law
10 August 2006. Contents: GUIDE: International Norms and Standards for Juvenile Justice; FACTS AND FIGURES: Children in the Criminal Justice System Around the World [fact sheet]; SOUTH AFRICA: Justice System Grapples to Deal with Children [news]; GOOD PRACTICE: Working with Children in Conflict with the Law; TURKEY: Children May Be Tried Under New Anti-Terror Law [news]; JUVENILE JUSTICE INDICATORS: Fifteen Indicators Developed to Increase Visibility and Protection for Children in Conflict with the Law; RESOURCES: Publications and Recommended Websites; EUROPE: Second International Conference on Juvenile Justice - A Frameworkfor Integration [conference]
http://www.crin.org/email/crinmail_detail.asp?crinmailID=1466

Critical Condition: African-American Youth in the Justice System
Campaign for Youth Justice. December 2008
http://campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/AfricanAmericanBrief.pdf

Cruel and Unusual: Sentencing 13 and 14 Year Old Children In to Die in Prison
Equal Justice Initiative, Montgomery, AL. November 2007. American prisons are home to 73 inmates locked up for life for crimes they committed when they were 13 or 14. Bump that age limit up three years and we have 2,225 prisoners locked up for the rest of their lives for crimes they committed when they were 17 or younger.

Article 10 of The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states, in part, "Accused juvenile persons shall be separated from adults and brought as speedily as possible for adjudication," and, "The penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of prisoners the essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation. Juvenile offenders shall be segregated from adults and be accorded treatment appropriate to their age and legal status."
http://eji.org/eji/files/20071017cruelandunusual.pdf

The Dangers of Detention: The Impact of Incarcerating Youth in Detention and Other Secure Facilities
Rather than promoting public safety, detention - the pretrial "jailing" of youth not yet found delinquent - may contribute to future offenses. Studies from around the country show that incarcerated youth have higher recidivism rates than youth supervised in other kinds of settings.
http://justicepolicy.org/reports_jl...ers/dangers_of_detention_report.pdf

Early Violent Death Among Delinquint Youth: A Prospective Longitudinal Study
By Linda Teplin and others. Pediatrics. June 2005.
http://www.rwjf.org/files/research/Early%20violent%20deaths.pdf

Education and Incarceration
By Bruce Western, Vincent Schiraldi and Jason Ziedenberg. Justice Policy Institute, 2003.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/Education-and-Incarceration.pdf

Education on Lockdown: The Schoolhouse to Jailhouse Track
(2005). This report from the Advancement Project examines how zero tolerance policies in schools have profound impacts on childrens' future and involvement with the juvenile justice system. Also - visit the new quot;Schoolhouse to Jailhouse" website: http://www.stopschoolstojails.org.
http://www.advancementproject.org/reports/FINALEOLrep.pdf

Effective Investments in Public Safety
Educational attainment, in itself, does not predetermine whether an individual will engage in crime. However, there is evidence that suggests that education and graduation rates may relate to crime rates, and this new research comes at a time when education programs are receiving less and less funding, while more money is being spent on incarceration—a public safety policy that has not been proven to lower crime rates. Data from numerous sources, including the Bureau of Justice Statistics, show that those people with the least education are often the ones who end up committing crimes and being imprisoned. Funding for more education services rather than corrections would have a significant positive effect on public safety. State by state information included in this document from the Justice Policy Institute, 2006.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi...ve-Investments-in-Public-Safety.doc

Effects on Violence of Laws and Policies Facilitating the Transfer of Youth from the Juvenile to the Adult System
A study published by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), led by a Task Force on Community Preventive Services, released November 29, 2007 finds that transferring youth to the adult criminal justice system significantly increases crime and rather than improve public safety, produces the opposite effect. Youth who have been previously tried as adults are, on average, 34% more likely to commit crimes than youth retained in the juvenile justice system. After an extensive review of published scientific evidence, the Task Force on Community Preventive Services recommended "Against laws or policies facilitating the transfer of juveniles from the juvenile to the adult judicial system." The CDC published the Task Force findings in their latest Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report - Reports and Recommendations. The study found that violent outcomes associated with the transfer of youth to the adult system include an increase in pretrial violence, victimization of juveniles in adult facilities, and elevated suicide rates for juveniles incarcerated in adult facilities.
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr5609.pdf

Focus: Children Exposed to Violence
National Council on Crime and Delinquency. August 2009
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/Youth_Exposure_to_Violence.pdf

From Prison to Home: The Effect of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities Incarceration. Reentry, and Social Capital: Social Networks in the Balance
By Dina R. Rose and Todd R. Clear, John Jay College of Criminal Justice.
http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/prison2home02/Rose.htm

Gang Wars: The Failure of Enforcement Tactics and the Need for Effective Public Safety Strategies
Written by Judith Greene and Kevin Pranis, undertakes an extensive review of the research literature on gangs to clarify persistent misconceptions and examine the effectiveness of common gang control strategies. According to the report, in cities like Los Angeles where gang activity is most prevalent, more police, more prisons and more punitive measures haven't stopped the cycle of gang violence. Most surprising are conclusions that gangs are responsible for a relatively small share of crime; gang activity has not grown in the U.S.; whites make up a large- if largely invisible- proportion of gang members; most gang-involved youth quit before reaching adulthood; and heavy-handed suppression tactics can increase gang cohesion while failing to reduce violence. Justice Policy Institute, July 2007.
http://www.justicepolicy.org/reports_jl/7-10-07_gangs/report.htm

Girls do what they have to do to survive: methods used by girls in the sex trade and street economy to fight back and heal
Young Women's Empowerment Project. "Girls do what they have to do to survive. We listen. We've been there." New research. September 2009.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/girls_do_what_they_have_to.pdf

Hearing on H.R 4300, Juvenile Justice Accountability and Improvement Act of 2007
House Judiciary Committee Hearing. Testimony by Richard Dudley, Jr., MD. September 11, 2008
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi..._Justice_Improvement_Act-Dudley.pdf

Hearing on H.R 4300, Juvenile Justice Accountability and Improvement Act of 2007
House Judiciary Committee Hearing. Testimony by Elizabeth Calvin, Children's Rights Advocate, Human Rights Watch. September 11, 2008
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi..._Justice_Improvement_Act-Calvin.pdf

Jailing Juveniles: The Dangers of Incarcerating Youth in Adult Jails in America
The Campaign for Youth Justice. The report provides a summary of the risks that youth face when incarcerated in adult jails, facts and figures about how many youth are incarcerated in jails nationwide, and a review of the limited federal and state laws protecting youth in jails. Released: November 15, 2007.
http://www.campaignforyouthjustice....ing_Juveniles_Report_2007-11-15.pdf

Juvenile Justice Project of Louisiana Report: Teenagers Held in Detention During Hurricane Katrina Endured Horrific Conditions
About 150 teenagers held in detention during Hurricane Katrina endured horrific conditions in the storm's aftermath, including standing for hours in filthy floodwater, having nothing to eat and drink for three to five days, and being forced to drink sewage-filled water as a result, according to "Treated Like Trash: Juvenile Detention in New Orleans Before, During, and After Hurricane Katrina". The report was prepared by the Juvenile Justice Project of Louisiana, a group that has long advocated changes in the state's troubled juvenile system, and was based on interviews with more than 60 teenagers held at the Orleans Parish Prison during the storm, as well as with prison staff members.
http://www.njisj.org/pubdocs/2006/red_051206_jjpl_rpt.pdf

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report
(NCJ 212906) March 2006 Report, 260 page(s) Snyder, H., and Sickmund, M. Presents comprehensive information on juvenile crime, violence, and victimization and on the juvenile justice system. This OJJDP National Report brings together the latest available statistics from a variety of sources and includes numerous tables, graphs, and maps, accompanied by analyses in clear, nontechnical language.
http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/publications/PubAbstract.asp?pubi=234394

Juvenile Transfer Laws: An Effective Deterrent to Delinquency?
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), U.S. Department of Justice. August 2008 Research by the OJJDP found that transfer laws have little or no deterrent effect on juvenile crime. The report, also mentions that recidivism rates have increased, because of the transfer laws. Key findings from OJJDP report: Laws to make it easier to transfer youth to the adult criminal court system have little or no general deterrent effect, meaning they do not prevent youth from engaging in criminal behavior; Youth transferred to the adult system are more likely to be rearrested and to reoffend than youth who committed similar crimes, but were retained in the juvenile justice system; Higher recidivism rates are due to a number of factors including the youth's:
• Stigmatization/negative labeling effects of being labeled as a convicted felon;
• Sense of resentment and injustice about being tried as an adult;
• Learning of criminal mores and behavior while incarcerated with adults;
• Decreased access to rehabilitation and family support in the adult system;
• Decreased employment and community integration opportunities due to a felony conviction.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/220595.pdf

Know Your Rights: A Guide to Young People's Rights in Juvenile Delinquency Court
(May 2007) The booklet is designed to teach young people their basic constitutional rights as it applies to the law. According to the Know Your Rights booklet in 2003: 2.2 million arrests were made of persons under the age of 18; 136,500 of these arrests were for violating curfew and loitering laws; Black youth account for 27% of all juvenile arrests, even though they only make up 16% of the youth population; and Girls account for 29% of all juvenile arrests, which represents a 45% increase in arrests of girls over a period of approximately twenty years Additionally, the booklet cites in recent years, reports of abuse and mistreatment in youth correctional facilities have increased. For example, in 2004 there were 2,821 reports of sexual violence against youth and 26 deaths of youth in facilities.
http://www.gaultat40.info/pdfs/kyr_booklet.pdf

Media Images of (Youthful) Offenders: A Comparative Analysis of Race, Class, Gender in Germany and the United States of America
Comparing media representations of (youthful) offenders in Germany and the U.S., this paper looks at the lessons of electoral campaigns for penal abolitionists. In a recent election campaign in Germany, a "law-and-order" discourse by a conservative party seems to have backfired, whereas in the US such "homeland security" discourse of fear usually brings about positive election results. Election campaigns in the Global North often use media images of "super-predator" youth to shore up a moral panic among voters who may already be concerned about various behavior patterns attributed to marginalized people such as immigrants, especially from the Global South, or naturalized people of color. In the post 9/11 era the deviant Other is a Muslim, preferably a young male immigrant from the Middle East who perhaps supplants the stereotype of angry black male. How do we respond to these stereotypical representations in advertising campaigns?
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/Nagel_media_images.pdf

No Turning Back: Promising Approaches to Reducing Racial and Ethnic Disparities Affecting Youth of Color in the Justice System
The Building Blocks for Youth initiative has released its final report. The report discusses the Casey Foundation's Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative, the W. Haywood Burns Institute, and campaigns in 12 cities, counties, and states to reduce disproportionate youth of color contact within the justice system.
http://www.buildingblocksforyouth.org/noturningback/ntb_fullreport.pdf

Pennsylvania Senate Committee on the Judiciary Public Hearing on Juvenile Lifers
Testimony by Ashley Nellis, PhD, Research Analyst, The Sentencing Project. September 22, 2008.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/TSP_Juvenile_Lifers_in_PA_9-08.pdf

Pennsylvania Senate Committee on the Judiciary Public Hearing on Juvenile Lifers - Statement by Laurence Steinberg, PhD
September 22, 2008.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materi...ile_Lifers_in_PA_9-08-Steinberg.pdf

Real Impacts: the actual results of Rhode Island's new law that charges 17-year-olds as adults
"Real Impacts: the actual results of RI's new law that charges 17-year-olds as adults" documents what has happened since July, 2007 when the RI legislature adopted this new policy. The report found that the new policy is not only more costly, it unduly punishes juveniles, particularly juveniles from disadvantaged backgrounds and from communities of color. In fact, 17-year-olds of color are 28 times more likely to end up in adult prison than white 17-year-olds. The report recommends that the new long be reversed as soon as possible and that the records of those already affected be retroactively undone. Family Life Center, October 2007.
http://realcostofprisons.org/materials/Real-Impacts.pdf

The Rest of Their Lives Life without Parole for Child Offenders in the United States
Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, October 2005. Includes state by state rankings of incarceration-for-life of children.
http://hrw.org/reports/2005/us1005/

Risking Their Futures: Why Trying Non-violent 17-year-olds as Adults is Bad Policy for Wisconsin
Wisconsin Council on Children & Families (WCCF), explores the effects and trends of sending this age group through the adult system. WCCF looked at 1,000 17-year-olds brought before adult court between September, 2001 and September, 2007 to examine sentencing patterns, recidivism rates, educational opportunities available during incarceration, and racial components to sentencing. More than half of the group was sentenced to jail or prison, even though nearly 80% of trials were only for misdemeanor charges. Moreover, 70% of these 1000 juveniles sent through adult court were convicted of a new crime during the period studied, equally split between felonies and misdemeanors. This recidivism rate is nearly double that of similar age groups sent through the juvenile system. In addition, racial disparities emerged in the sentencing trends. When compared to Caucasian youth, African-American youth were far more likely to be incarcerated and far less likely to be returned to the community through deferred prosecution, fines, or probation. This trend held true for American Indians and Latinos as well.
http://www.wccf.org/pdf/risking_their_futures.pdf

A Road Map for Juvenile Justice Reform
2008 KIDS COUNT Data Book essay, "A Road Map for Juvenile Justice Reform" looks at the nearly 100,000 children confined to juvenile facilities on any given night in the United States and what can be done to reduce unnecessary and inappropriate detention and incarceration and increase opportunities for positive youth development and community safety. The essay is released in conjunction with the 2008 KIDS COUNT Data Book, an incredible resource which gives national and state-by-state profiles of the well-being of America's children through rankings on 10 key measures and information on the economic, health, education, and social conditions of America's children and families.
http://www.aecf.org/kidscount/sld/databook.jsp

Saving Futures, Saving Dollars: The Impact of Education on Crime Reduction and Earnings
Source: The Alliance for Excellent Education. "America's standard of living and international competitiveness will be strengthened if its high schools are improved. Research indicates that about 75 percent of America's state prison inmates, almost 59 percent of federal inmates, and 69 percent of jail inmates did not complete high school. Additionally, the number of prison inmates without a high school diploma has increased over time (Harlow, 2003). Reforming the nation's high schools could potentially increase the number of graduates and, as a result, significantly reduce the nation's crime-related costs and add billions of dollars to the economy through the additional wages they would earn. Increasing the graduation rate and college matriculation of male students by only 5 percent could lead to combined savings and revenue of almost $8 billion each year."
http://www.all4ed.org/publications/SavingFutures.pdf

The School to Prison Pipeline and Criminalizing Youth: Costs, Consequences, and Alternatives
By Marsha Weissman in The Link, an online journal of the Child Welfare League, discusses the growing trend to criminalize adolescent behavior and the pathways that lead from school to prison. There are both direct links between school and prison evidenced by the growing presence of police in schools and the increase in numbers of young people arrested in school, and indirect links which are reflected by school suspensions and expulsions. Also highlighted Strategies for Success, a Center for Community Alternatives' program that has been in operation since 2000 and has reduced both suspensions and arrests of students who would otherwise be trapped in the school to prison pipeline.
http://www.cwla.org/programs/juvenilejustice/thelink2008spring.pdf

Until They Die A Natural Death: Youth Sentenced to Life Without Parole In Massachusetts
The report followed a two-year review of most of the cases in which children ages 14, 15, and 16 were tried in adult court and sentenced to life. Massachusetts has one of the harshest laws in the country for sentencing murderers as young as 14 to life in prison without parole, and many of the 57 people serving such mandatory sentences are first-time offenders. African Americans make up 47 percent of the juveniles sentenced to life without parole but account for less than 7 percent of children under 18 in Massachusetts, said the report.The Children’s Law Center of Massachusetts (September 2009)
http://www.clcm.org/UntilTheyDieaNaturalDeath9_09.pdf

When I Die, They’ll Send Me Home: Youth Sentenced to Life without Parole in California
Human Rights Watch Report, 2008
http://hrw.org/reports/2008/us0108/